Combination of insulin and ascorbate to enhance wound healing

ABSTRACT

Provided is a method of stimulating collagen synthesis and proteoglycan (lumican and keratocan) accumulation. Collagenase isolated keratocytes were cultured with or without insulin with or without ascorbate. Insulin stimulates the synthesis of collagen but does not affect the accumulation of lumican and keratocan. Insulin plus ascorbate, however, stimulates the synthesis of collagen and increased the accumulation of these proteoglycans. The accumulation of PGDS, a KSPG that does not interact with collagen, is not affected by ascorbate. Only the collagen made in the presence of ascorbate was pepsin resistant. EDB overrode the effects of ascorbate on pepsin resistance and proteoglycan accumulation.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to currently pending U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application 60/803,944 filed Jun. 5, 2006 and 60/823,583, filedAug. 25, 2006 the contents of which are herein incorporated byreference.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. NEI08104 awarded by the National Eye Institute, National Institutes ofHealth. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The corneal stroma contains keratocytes imbedded in an extracellularmatrix consisting primarily of collagen types I and V and ofproteoglycans that contain either chondroitin sulfate (CS) or keratansulfate (KS) chains. Electron microscopic studies show the cornealstroma contains collagen fibrils of small, uniform diameter that areseparated by small, uniformly sized spaces. The collagen fibrils in thecorneal stroma are heterofibrils of collagen types I and V. Collagentype V is essential for the initiation of fibril formation and thepresence of collagen V in the heterofibril has been shown to limit thefibril diameter growth. The proteoglycans are in the spaces between thefibrils in vivo (see Muller L J, Pels E, Schurmans L R, and Vrensen G F.A new three-dimensional model of the organization of proteoglycans andcollagen fibrils in the human corneal stroma Exp Eye Res. 2004;78:493-501; which is incorporated herein by reference) and in vitroassays that measure collagen fibril assembly have shown that theseproteoglycans modulate collagen fibril formation. Collagen fibrilformation in the presence of CS and KS proteoglycans purified from thecornea delayed fibril formation, decreased the rate of fibril growth andresulted in smaller collagen fibrils. The removal of the GAG side chainsdid not affect the activity of the proteoglycans, but reduction andalkylation abolished the activity. This indicates that the core proteinof these proteoglycans modulates collagen assembly into fibrils. Themajor proteoglycans of the corneal stroma are decorin, lumican andkeratocan. Decorin is a CS proteoglycan, whereas keratocan and lumicanare KS proteoglycans. Keratocan (see iu C Y, Birk D E, Hassell J R, KaneB, and Kao W W. Keratocan-deficient mice display alterations in cornealstructure J Biol Chem. 2003; 278:21672-21677; Meek K M, Quantock A J,Boote C, Liu C Y, and Kao W W. An X-ray scattering investigation ofcorneal structure in keratocan-deficient mice Matrix Biol. 2003;22:467-475; which are incorporated herein by reference) and lumican (seeChakravarti S, Petroll W M, Hassell J R, et al. Corneal opacity inlumican-null mice: defects in collagen fibril structure and packing inthe posterior stroma Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000; 41:3365-3373;Chakravarti S, Magnuson T, Lass J H, et al. Lumican regulates collagenfibril assembly: skin fragility and corneal opacity in the absence oflumican J Cell Biol. 1998; 141:1277-1286; Chakravarti S. Functions oflumican and fibromodulin: lessons from knockout mice Glycoconj J. 2002;19:287-293 which are incorporated herein by reference) null mice havethinner corneas, and the collagen fibrils in the stromas are larger andless organized than in the stromas of normal mice, confirming the invitro turbidimetry analysis of collagen fibril assembly.

Three procollagen polypeptides come together to form a left-handedtriple helix immediately after synthesis. Stable triple helix formation,however, can only occur if certain lysine and proline residues in thecollagen molecule are hydroxylated. This post-translationalhydroxylation is performed by either lysyl or prolyl hydroxylases. Theseenzymes are found in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and requireascorbic acid as a cofactor. Ascorbate deficiency in cell culture doesnot affect collagen synthesis but affects fibril formation and the rateof collagen secretion. The unhydroxylated collagen molecules denature ata lower temperature and in less stringent environments than properlyhydroxylated collagen fibrils. Systemic ascorbate deficiency leads toscurvy, and this deficiency affects wound healing. Scorbutic wounds areweaker than non-scorbutic wounds, prone to reopen and contain a mass ofirregular, unorganized collagen fibrils.

The cornea and anterior segment of the eye contain high levels ofascorbate (see Ringvold A, Anderssen E, and Kjonniksen I. Distributionof ascorbate in the anterior bovine eye Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:20-23; which is incorporated herein by reference), where it isthought to function as an antioxidant and protect the cornea fromreactive oxygen species that result from UV irradiation (see Brubaker RF, Bourne W M, Bachman L A, and McLaren J W. Ascorbic acid content ofhuman corneal epithelium Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000; 41:1681-1683;which is incorporated herein by reference). The levels of ascorbate inthe aqueous humor and the cornea drop following an alkali burn,resulting in the cornea becoming scorbutic. The cells in the stroma showcharacteristics of scorbutic tissue such as a sparse ER, suggesting thatthey are not very metabolically active (Pfister R R, and Paterson C A.Ascorbic acid in the treatment of alkali burns of the eye Ophthalmology.1980; 87:1050-1057; which is incorporated herein by reference). Topicalascorbate has been used successfully to treat corneal alkali burns andhas been proposed to do so by increasing the synthesis and secretion ofproperly folded collagen to replace the collagen denatured by the burn(see Pfister R R, and Paterson C A. Additional clinical andmorphological observations on the favorable effect of ascorbate inexperimental ocular alkali burns Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1977;16:478-487; which is incorporated herein by reference). In addition,topical ascorbate has also been used post-photorefractive keratectomy(PRK) where its use decreased the late onset corneal haze (seeStojanovic A, Ringvold A, and Nitter T. Ascorbate prophylaxis forcorneal haze after photorefractive keratectomy J Refract Surg. 2003;19:338-343; which is incorporated herein by reference). Ascorbateconcentration is highest in the epithelium, the layer that is removedprior to PRK. While the exact reason for the late onset corneal haze isnot known, it is possible that removal of part of the epithelium priorto PRK results in a drop in ascorbate levels in the anterior cornealstroma and we would further speculate that this drop may reduce thesecretion of properly folded collagen which could result in the haze.

Ascorbic acid has been used to study collagen synthesis in culture, butit is easily oxidized in solution and its metabolic by-products arecytotoxic in extended cell culture. A stable, non-toxic phosphatederivative of ascorbic acid (2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid) was developedand has been shown to stimulate collagen accumulation by skinfibroblasts in culture and also to enhance the secretion of type I andtype III collagen peptides by rabbit keratocytes cultured in mediumcontaining fetal bovine serum. Serum, however, contains mitogens andmorphogens that cause keratocytes in culture to proliferate, acquire afibroblastic morphology and cease keratocan expression.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The findings disclosed herein indicate that collagen type I assemblyinto fibrils is modulated by both collagen type V and the keratansulfate proteoglycans in the stroma.

A chemically defined medium containing insulin has been previously shownto stimulate keratocyte proliferation while maintaining their dendriticmorphology as well as keratocan expression (see Musselmann K, AlexandrouB, Kane B, and Hassell J R. Maintenance of the keratocyte phenotypeduring cell proliferation stimulated by insulin J Biol Chem. 2005;280:32634-32639; which is incorporated herein by reference). In thepresent invention, keratocytes were cultured in this defined mediumcontaining 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid to determine its effects on thesynthesis and accumulation of collagen and KS proteoglycans.

Collagenase isolated keratocytes were cultured with or without insulinwith or without ascorbate. Collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis weredetermined by collagenase digestion of incorporated ³H-glycine and bychondroitinase ABC or endo-β-galactosidase digestion of incorporated³⁵SO₄. KSPGs were detected by Western blot. Collagen stability wasdetermined by pepsin digestion. Ethyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (EDB) wasused to inhibit collagen hydroxylation.

Insulin stimulated the synthesis of collagen but did not affect theaccumulation of lumican and keratocan. Insulin plus ascorbate, however,stimulated the synthesis of collagen and increased the accumulation ofthese proteoglycans. The accumulation of PGDS, a KSPG that does notinteract with collagen, was not affected by ascorbate. Only the collagenmade in the presence of ascorbate was pepsin resistant. EDB overrode theeffects of ascorbate on pepsin resistance and proteoglycan accumulation.

These results indicate that the accumulation of lumican and keratocandepends, in part, upon the level of collagen synthesis and itshydroxylation. The interaction of lumican and keratocan with the stablyfolded triple helix provided by hydroxylation may also serve tostabilize these proteoglycans.

In a first embodiment, the invention includes a method of stimulatingcollagen synthesis comprising contacting a cell with a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a compound comprising insulin and ascorbate. In apreferred embodiment the compound further comprises 2-phospho-L-ascorbicacid.

In another embodiment, the invention includes a method of stimulatingwound healing, comprising contacting the wound with a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a compound comprising insulin and ascorbate. In apreferred embodiment the compound further comprises 2-phospho-L-ascorbicacid.

In a third embodiment, the invention includes a method of inducing thesecretion of collagen from a cell comprising contacting the cell with aneffective amount of a compound comprising insulin and ascorbate. In apreferred embodiment the compound further comprises 2-phospho-L-ascorbicacid.

In yet another embodiment, the invention includes a method of inducingthe secretion of a proteoglycan from a cell comprising contacting thecell with an effective amount of a compound comprising insulin andascorbate. In a preferred embodiment the compound further comprises2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid and the proteoglycan is a keratin sulfateproteoglycan selected from the group consisting of lumican andkeratocan.

In another embodiment, the invention includes a method of stimulatingthe synthesis of pepsin resistant collagen comprising contacting a cellwith an effective amount of a compound comprising ascorbate. In apreferred embodiment the compound further comprises insulin and/or2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a fuller understanding of the invention, reference should be made tothe following detailed description, taken in connection with theaccompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1. Keratocyte population growth in culture using defined media.Legend: Control, filled squares solid line; ascorbate, open squaresdashed line; insulin, filled triangles solid line; insulin plusascorbate, open triangles dashed line. The addition of ascorbate to theculture medium increases initial growth rate when insulin is present inthe medium but does not affect final cell density or growth in theabsence of insulin. n=4

FIG. 2. Collagen synthesis and secretion in defined media. Cultures wereincubated in media containing ³H-glycine for 72 hours. Radioactivityincorporated into collagen present in the media (black bar) and celllayer (open bar) was determined using a collagenase specific forfibrillar regions of collagen. The addition of ascorbate alone did notalter the collagen synthesis. Adding insulin to the culture mediumsignificantly increased collagen in both the cell layer and the medium.Insulin plus ascorbate show a significant increase collagen in secretedinto the medium and a significant decrease in collagen in the cell layercompared to insulin alone. n=3

FIG. 3. SDS PAGE analysis of medium digested with pepsin. The medium ofcells cultured in insulin (I), insulin plus ascorbate (IA) or insulin,ascorbate and EDB (0.4 mM) was collected, concentrated and digested withpepsin in 0.5M acetic acid. Aliquots of the digested samples and apepsin only control (P) were separated on 10% bis-tris and stained fortotal protein using SafeStain™. Only the medium of cells cultured ininsulin and ascorbate had pepsin resistant collagen. The IA lane isshown expanded to the right and the migration positions of the α chainsfor collagen I and V are labeled.

FIG. 4. Accumulation of keratan sulfate proteoglycans in the medium.Medium was collected on day 4, digested with endo-β-galactosidase,separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to nitrocellulose and probed withantibodies to keratocan, lumican or PGDS. The Western blots usingantibodies against keratocan, lumican and PGDS were scanned to determinetheir pixel density and the net pixel density divided by the microgramsof DNA in each culture. Bars represent the mean of 3 determinations plusS.D. Keratocan accumulation in medium containing ascorbate increased4-fold (p<0.005) compared to control. Medium containing insulin andascorbate contained 9-fold more keratocan and lumican (p<0.005) thancontrol medium. The addition of ascorbate did not have an effect on PGDSlevels with or without insulin. n=3

FIG. 5. Accumulation of keratan sulfate proteoglycans in culture mediumof cells treated with ethyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (EDB). Keratocyteswere cultured in medium containing either 0.08 mM or 0.4 mM EDB ininsulin containing growth medium with or without ascorbate. Samples wereprocessed as described in FIG. 6. A dose dependent significant decrease(p<0.01) at 0.08 mM EDB was detected in both lumican and keratocanaccumulation between cells cultured in insulin+ascorbate andinsulin+ascorbate+EDB. At 0.4 mM, lumican and keratocan levels fellbelow the levels of the insulin alone control.

FIG. 6. Incorporation of ³⁵SO₄ into glycosaminoglycans during 72 h inculture. Cultures were incubated in medium containing ³⁵SO₄ for 72hours. The culture medium was collected, sensitivity of incorporatedradioactivity to chondroitinase ABC (open bars) and endo-β-galactosidase(black bars) digestion was used to determine incorporation of ³⁵SO₄ intochondroitin and keratan sulfate, respectively. CPM was expressed per μgof DNA. Bar represent mean plus S.D. n=3.

FIG. 7. Chromatography of ³⁵SO₄ radiolabeled proteoglycans on Superose6. Culture medium from keratocytes incubated with ³⁵SO₄ for 72-hours washarvested and equal amounts of incorporated radioactivity wasfractionated on Superose 6 to determine incorporation into intactproteoglycans. Legend: insulin: filled squares, solid line; insulin plusascorbate: open squares, dashed line. Inlay shows percent CS/KS offractions 15 to 23 from media of insulin plus ascorbate treated cells.Inlay legend: CS, solid line; KS, dashed line. Most of the incorporatedradioactivity elutes at the position of the intact proteoglycans.Ascorbate preferentially stimulates the incorporation of ³⁵SO₄ intoKSPG.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

In the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments,reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a parthereof, and within which are shown by way of illustration specificembodiments by which the invention may be practiced. It is to beunderstood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changesmay be made without departing from the scope of the invention.

The abbreviations used herein include:

LRR, leucine rich repeat;

DMEM/F12, Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and Ham's F-12 Medium, 1:1;

HRP, horse-radish peroxidase;

SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate;

PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis;

PDGS, prostaglandin D synthase;

PRK, photorefractive keratectomy;

ER, endoplasmic reticulum;

UV, ultraviolet light; and

ECL: electrochemiluminescence.

Ascorbate is required for the hydroxylation of collagen that is presentin the corneal stroma. The keratan sulfate proteoglycans (KSPGs) lumicanand keratocan, are also present and they interact with collagen andmodulate its assembly into fibrils. Ascorbate was added to a definedmedium containing insulin and its effects on the synthesis of collagenand KSPGs by keratocytes was determined.

Collagenase isolated keratocytes were cultured with or without insulinwith or without ascorbate. Collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis weredetermined by collagenase digestion of incorporated ³H-glycine and bychondroitinase ABC or endo-β-galactosidase digestion of incorporated³⁵SO₄. KSPGs were detected by Western blot. Collagen stability wasdetermined by pepsin digestion. Ethyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (EDB) wasused to inhibit collagen hydroxylation.

Insulin stimulated the synthesis of collagen but did not affect theaccumulation of lumican and keratocan. Insulin plus ascorbate, however,stimulated the synthesis of collagen and increased the accumulation ofthese proteoglycans. The accumulation of PGDS, a KSPG that does notinteract with collagen, was not affected by ascorbate. Only the collagenmade in the presence of ascorbate was pepsin resistant. EDB overrode theeffects of ascorbate on pepsin resistance and proteoglycan accumulation.

These results indicate that the accumulation of lumican and keratocandepends, in part, upon the level of collagen synthesis and itshydroxylation. The interaction of lumican and keratocan with the stablyfolded triple helix provided by hydroxylation may also serve tostabilize these proteoglycans.

These results also indicate that ascorbate alone does not increasecollagen synthesis by keratocytes in culture. The addition of insulinalone, however, increased collagen synthesis 4-fold and the presence ofascorbate in medium containing insulin further increased collagensynthesis to 7-fold. The further increase in total collagen synthesis islikely due to the ascorbate-mediated hydroxylation of prolines andlysines in the collagen molecule that stabilizes the triple helix andthereby increases its secretion and resistance to degradation. Insulinhas been shown to stimulate collagen type I synthesis in human lungfibroblasts at both the mRNA and protein levels, and to stimulatecollagenous protein accumulation in scleroderma fibroblasts via thePKC-gamma pathway. Insulin therapy has been shown to improve woundhealing of skin burns in rats. Insulin treatment has also been shown toimprove the strength of healed through-and-through wounds in rabbitcorneas. Since tissues derive their tensile strength from collagen, theincreased strength of the corneal wounds treated with insulin may be dueto increased collagen synthesis.

The addition of ascorbate to culture medium containing insulin not onlystimulated collagen synthesis, but also increased keratocan and lumicanaccumulation 9-fold and KS synthesis 11-fold. The increase in lumicanand keratocan accumulation correlates with the increased synthesis ofhydroxylated collagen. Culture in insulin alone stimulated collagensynthesis, but did not affect lumican and keratocan accumulation.Although insulin stimulated collagen synthesis in the absence ofascorbate the collagen did not form stable triple helices, as shown by agreater proportion of the total collagen made accumulating with the celllayer, or pericellularly, and by the susceptibility of the collagensecreated into the medium to degradation by pepsin. When ascorbate wasadded to the insulin-containing medium, a higher proportion of the totalcollagen made was secreted into the medium and the collagens type I andV present in the medium were pepsin resistant. The effect of ascorbateon stimulating lumican and keratocan accumulation and providingresistance of collagen to pepsin digestion was abolished whenethyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (EDB) was added to the culture medium. EDBis an analogue of ascorbate and competitively inhibits prolylhydroxylase, resulting in the synthesis of underhydroxylated collagen.Taken together, these data suggest that the synthesis and accumulationof lumican and keratocan are linked to the level of collagen synthesisand to the stabilization of the collagen triple helix by hydroxylation.

The ascorbic acid mediated stimulation of keratan sulfate proteoglycanaccumulated by keratocytes was limited to keratocan and lumican. Bothkeratocan and lumican have core proteins containing leucine rich repeats(LRR). Homology modeling of proteins with LRR to ribonuclease inhibitorshow that these proteins to fold to a solenoid tertiary structure, thatinteracts with the collagen fibril and regulates fibril formation anddiameter. PGDS is made as a keratan sulfate proteoglycan by keratocytesin culture, but it does not contain LRR and does not interact withcollagen. Unlike keratocan and lumican, PGDS accumulation was notaffected by insulin, ascorbate or the combination of both.

The invention shows that while insulin stimulated collagen synthesis,most of this increase was in the collagen associated with the cell layerand that when ascorbic acid was included with insulin, most of theincrease was in the collagen secreted into the medium, where theproteoglycans are also secreted. Proteoglycans such as lumican andkeratocan that interact with collagen may depend on the formation of astable collagen helix for their own stability. The core protein of theseproteoglycans interact with specific regions of the collagen fibril in amanner similar to the interaction of collagen with decorin. Thedecreased stability of the collagen triple helix that forms in theabsence of ascorbate would weaken if not abolish the interaction of thecore protein with the collagen. The other possibility is that the coreproteins for lumican and keratocan are also hydroxylated and thisstabilizes their structure and prevents proteolytic attack. It may beinteresting to note that elastin, another extracellular matrixcomponent, is also hydroxylated in the presence of ascorbate. There is,however, no evidence that the prolines or lysines in lumican andkeratocan are hydroxylated and the increased synthesis of theseproteoglycans in the presence of ascorbic acid is more likely due to aprotective effect they receive by interaction with a stably foldedcollagen.

Here the inventors show that ascorbate, besides stabilizing the collagentriple helix, also increases the accumulation of lumican and keratocanproteoglycans in the medium. This data suggests that the prophylacticaction of ascorbate in alkali wound treatment, and in the prevention oflate onset corneal haze after PRK by the use of topical ascorbate, maybe due to the effect of ascorbate on increasing the stability of thetriple helix for collagen I and V which then acts to increase thestability and therefore the accumulation of the keratan sulfateproteoglycans lumican and keratocan. The increased accumulation ofkeratan sulfate proteoglycans, in turn, may accelerate the restorationof stromal transparency by regulating the assembly of the stably foldedcollagen triple helices into fibrils of the correct diameter. Insulin,which has been shown to stimulate collagen synthesis and which has beenshown to improve wound healing, may further enhance wound healing ifused in combination with ascorbate, particularly in humans, since theylack the ability to synthesize ascorbate.

The DNA content of the keratocyte cultures was measured over a 10-dayculture period to determine if ascorbate stimulated cell accumulation.The cells cultured in DMEM/F12 or DMEM/F12 medium supplemented withascorbate did not increase in number, but keratocytes cultured in mediumsupplemented with insulin increased in number over the 10-day cultureperiod (FIG. 1). Cells cultured in insulin plus ascorbate show amoderately higher initial accumulation rate than keratocytes cultured ininsulin in the absence of ascorbate and achieved the same density on day7 as cells in insulin did on day 10. The incorporation of ³H-thymidineinto DNA on days 1-4 and 4-7 reflected the cell accumulation rates seenfor all 4 culture conditions (data not shown).

The synthesis of collagen and proteoglycans was measured over 72 hoursbeginning on day 1 and ending on day 4, a time period during which thecell number was rapidly increasing in the cultures receiving insulin.³H-glycine incorporation into collagen was determined by sensitivity tocollagenase digestion (FIG. 2). Compared to control, keratocytescultured in ascorbate synthesized 40% less collagen (p<0.05), and thisdecrease was in the collagen associated with the cell layer. Keratocytescultured in insulin synthesized 4-fold more collagen (p<0.01), withincreases of 5-fold in the cell layer (p<0.02) and 3-fold in the medium(p<0.03). Cells cultured in both insulin and ascorbate synthesized7-fold (p=0.0004) more collagen compared to controls; a value 50%greater than insulin alone (p=0.006). Compared to keratocytes culturedin insulin alone, the medium of keratocytes cultured in insulin plusascorbate contained 4-fold more collagen (p<0.001) but the cell layercontained 30% less collagen (p<0.03). Keratocytes cultured in ascorbateplus insulin synthesized 11-fold more collagen than keratocyte culturedin ascorbate alone with a 9-fold increase (p<0.001) in the cell layerand a 12-fold increase (p<0.001) in the medium. This data suggests thatinsulin stimulates collagen synthesis and that ascorbate increases theproportion of the collagen that is secreted into the media.

The hydroxylation of proline in the procollagen molecule is apost-translational modification required for the formation of a stabletriple helix in the endoplasmic reticulum. Prolyl hydroxylases are theenzymes required for the hydroxylation of the 4-position of proline.Ethyl-3,4-dihydroxy-benzoate (EDB) is a selective inhibitor of prolylhydroxylase. EDB is not toxic to the cells and has been previously shownto inhibit collagen deposition in a dose-dependent manner. Since most ofthe collagen made by keratocytes cultured in ascorbate plus insulin wasin the media (FIG. 2), the collagen in the media was analyzed forstability by resistance to pepsin digestion. Keratocytes were culturedin insulin or insulin plus ascorbate-containing medium with or without0.4 mM EDB. The medium of the cells was collected, adjusted to 0.5Macetic acid, digested with pepsin and analyzed by SDS-PAGE (FIG. 3). Themedium of keratocytes cultured in insulin plus ascorbate containedpepsin-resistant collagen types I and V fibrils, demonstrated by theprominent bands for α1(I) and α2(I), as well as a clear band for α1(V)between the 64 and 191 kDa markers (FIG. 3, lane IA). The band for α2(V)partially co-migrated with α1(I), but can be observed as a faint bandjust above α1(I) (FIG. 3, right panel, expanded view of lane IA). Thesebands were absent in the medium of cells cultured in insulin alone (laneI) and in the medium of cells cultured in insulin, ascorbate and 0.4 mMEDB (lane IAE). These results show that the 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acidderivative of ascorbate acts on collagen to produce a stably foldedtriple helix.

The accumulation of lumican and keratocan in the culture medium wasdetermined by Western blot. The medium was digested withendo-β-galactosidase to remove the KS side chain before SDS-PAGE tofacilitate transfer in Western blot. Antibodies to the core protein ofthe proteoglycan detect the core protein as a sharp band in a Westernblot, and the pixel density for each band was determined (FIG. 4).Treating cells with ascorbate alone increased keratocan and lumicanlevels in the medium 4-fold (p<0.005), but insulin alone had no effecton the levels of these proteoglycans. A 9-fold increase in both lumicanand keratocan was observed (p<0.005 for both), when cells were culturedwith insulin plus ascorbate. Prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS) is alsosynthesized as a KSPG by keratocytes in vitro. Consequently, theinventors performed Western blots for PGDS as well and found thatneither ascorbate nor insulin affected PGDS levels. Since only keratocanand lumican have been shown to interact with collagen fibrils, theseresults suggest that the increased accumulation of KSPGs in the mediumis limited to those with core proteins that interact with collagen.

Having shown that the accumulation of lumican and keratocan in themedium is increased by the addition of ascorbate, the inventors thentested if the stimulatory activity of insulin plus ascorbate could beinhibited by the addition of EDB at a low and high dose (0.08 mM and 0.4mM, respectively). As previously shown, the addition of ascorbate tomedium containing insulin increased lumican and keratocan accumulation,but the presence of 0.08 mM EDB in medium containing insulin andascorbate reduced the accumulation of both lumican and keratocan by 19and 28% (p<0.01) respectively after 72 hours (FIG. 5). EDB at a highdose (0.4 mM) reduced lumican and keratocan (p=0.07) accumulation in themedium to levels below of those measured in insulin alone. The level ofPGDS also declined but the decrease was not significant (p=0.5). Theresults of this experiment also confirm a correlation betweenhydroxylation and increased levels of lumican and keratocan production.

Keratocyte cultures were radiolabeled with ³⁵SO₄, and the amount ofincorporated radiolabel in the CS and KS secreted into the media wasdetermined by digestion with chondroitinase ABC and endo-β-galactosidaseto determine if ascorbate would also increase the incorporation of ³⁵SO₄into KS (FIG. 6). Compared to control, the addition of ascorbate alonedid not increase the incorporation of ³⁵SO₄ into either CS or KS andinsulin caused only minor changes in the incorporation of ³⁵SO₄ intothese glycosaminoglycans. Culture in insulin plus ascorbate, however,increased ³⁵SO₄ incorporation into both CS and KS significantly(p<0.01), but preferentially enhanced incorporation into KS (11-fold forKS, 6-fold for CS), compared to control.

While most of the keratan sulfate made by keratocytes in culture hasbeen shown to be in proteoglycans, a portion accumulates as free GAG inthe medium. These GAG side chains may be the result of proteolyticdegradation of the core proteins. Consequently, equivalent counts ofincorporated ³⁵SO₄ present in the medium of insulin or the medium ofinsulin plus ascorbate treated cultures were fractionated on Superose 6to separate intact proteoglycans from GAGs. The intact proteoglycanssynthesized by keratocytes cultured in insulin or in insulin plusascorbate eluted between fractions 15 and 23 (FIG. 7). There was,however, relatively greater incorporation in fractions 19 to 23 forkeratocytes cultured in insulin plus ascorbate. Fractions 15-23 weredigested with chondroitinase ABC or endo-β-galactosidase to determinethe glycosaminoglycan chain composition. The inlay shows that over 80%of the incorporated counts in fractions 15-18 were released bychondroitinase ABC digestion, whereas over 60% of the incorporatedcounts in fractions 19-23 were released by endo-β-galactosidasedigestion. This demonstrates that the KS containing proteoglycans eluteprimarily in fractions 19-23, and further confirms that ascorbic acidpreferentially stimulates the synthesis of KS containing proteoglycans.

EXAMPLE

Chemicals—Chemicals were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.) unlessotherwise indicated. Isotopes were obtained from PerkinElmer (Boston,Mass.). Invitrogen (Carlsbad, Calif.) gels, reagents and equipment wereused to separate proteins and for transfer onto nitrocellulose.

Cell Culture—Keratocytes were isolated from adult bovine corneas usingtwo sequential collagenase digestions as previously described (seeBerryhill B L, Beales M P, and Hassell J R. Production of prostaglandinD synthase as a keratan sulfate proteoglycan by cultured bovinekeratocytes Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2001;42:1201-1207; which isincorporated herein by reference). Cells were plated in DMEM/F12 at highdensity (20,000 cells/cm²) in 6-well plates (Costar, Cambridge, Mass.)and allowed to attach overnight at 37° C. in 5% CO₂. The medium waschanged the next day (day 1) and on days 4, 7 and 10 to fresh DMEM orDMEM supplemented with insulin (10 μg/ml), with or without 1 mM2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid (ascorbate). Ethyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (EDB)was added at 0.08 mM and 0.4 mM final concentration on day 1.

DNA quantitation—Cell layers were harvested on days 1, 4, 7 and 10 tomeasure DNA content using Cyquant (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.).Briefly, the cell layers were rinsed with PBS, frozen, thawed andsolubilized in a lysis buffer supplemented with a DNA binding dye. TheDNA content was determined at 480/535 nm by measuring 4 wells intriplicate and comparing the values to a calf thymus DNA standard. TheDNA content of parallel cultures was measured for experiments thatutilized the cell layer.

Cell proliferation—Cultures were radiolabeled with 20 μCi³H-thymidine/ml of medium for 72 hours beginning on days 1 and 4. Thelabeled medium was removed upon harvesting, and the cell layers washedwith cold PBS. The cell layers were processed as described under DNAquantitation. Incorporation into DNA was determined as previouslydescribed.

Collagen synthesis—The incorporation of ³H-glycine into collagen wasdetermined as previously described. In summary, cultures were incubatedfor 72 hours in medium containing 25 μCi ³H-glycine/ml beginning onday 1. Media was adjusted to 4M guanidine HCl and the cell layersextracted in 4M guanidine HCl. Unincorporated isotope in media and celllayers was removed by chromatography on PD10 columns equilibrated andeluted with 4M guanidine HCl (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, N.J.).Fractions containing incorporated radioactivity were pooled, dialyzedagainst water and 400 μl aliquots incubated with or without 2.5 Unitscollagenase form III (Advanced Biofactures, Lynbrook, N.Y.) incollagenase digestion medium (3 mM N-ethyl maleimide, 50 mM Tris pH 7.5,150 mM NaCl and 5 mM CaCl2) for 3 hours at 37° C. Undigested proteinswere precipitated with carrier BSA using cold 10% TCA containing 0.5%tannic acid and released incorporated counts measured by liquidscintillation. The DNA content was determined as described above.

Collagen helix stability—Medium from cells was adjusted to 0.5M aceticacid and concentrated 8-fold using Amicon Ultra spin-concentrators MWCO10,000 (Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.). 50 ul of a 4 mg/ml pepsinsolution (in 0.5M acetic acid) per 3 ml was added and the samples rockedovernight at 4° C. Each sample received a second 50 μl aliquot from thepepsin stock, and digestion was allowed to continue for an additionalsix hours at 4° C. The samples were titrated with 1N NaOH to pH 8.0 toinactivate the enzyme, dialyzed against water overnight, lyophilized,reconstituted in 1×SDS running buffer and separated on 10% bis-tris gelsunder reducing conditions. The gels were stained with Safestainfollowing the manufacturers protocol.

Proteoglycan synthesis—Cultures were labeled with 50 μCi/ml of ³⁵SO₄ for72 hours on day 1. The medium was collected, frozen, lyophilized andreconstituted in 4M guanidine HCl. Unincorporated isotope was removedusing PD10 columns. Fractions containing incorporated ³⁵SO₄ werecombined and concentrated using Amicon Ultra spin-concentrators.Incorporation into CS and KS was determined by digestion withchondroitinase ABC or endo-β-galactosidase (Seikagaku, Associates ofCape Cod, E. Falmouth, Mass.) as previously described. Aliquotscontaining equivalent incorporated radioactivity were fractionated usinga Superose 6 12/30 HR column (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, N.J.)equilibrated and eluted with 4M guanidine HCl (0.05 NaAc, pH6.5) at 0.3ml/min. Fractions (0.6 ml) were collected and incorporation measured byliquid scintillation counting. The levels of CS and KS in each fractionwere determined as described above.

Western blot analysis—Core protein and protein levels in the media weremeasured by Western blot as previously described. In brief, the culturemedia was collected from each culture condition, concentrated by spinfiltration to one tenth or one fiftieth of the original volume. The sizeof the aliquot needed from each sample to provide a similar signal onfilm by Western blot was empirically determined. The measured pixeldensity was then divided by the DNA content of the culture equivalent tothe amount loaded and expressed as pixel density per μg DNA. Blots wereprobed with polyclonal antibodies to bovine keratocan or lumican(diluted 1:1000) or prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS) (1:20,000). Thelumican and keratocan antibodies are peptide antibodies raised againstthe core protein⁴⁸. The rabbit antiserum to bovine PGDS was a generousgift of Gary J. Killian (Penn State University). Membranes were rinsedand incubated for 1 hour in 1:10,000 horseradish peroxidase(HRP)-conjugated secondary IgG (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, N.J.).Protein bands were visualized using ECL (GE Healthcare, Piscataway,N.J.) on Kodak Bio-Max XAR X-ray film. Band density was measured using aBio-Rad GS-710 Calibrated Imaging Densitometer (Bio-Rad, Hercules,Calif.).

Statistical Analysis—Statistical analysis was performed using Statview(SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.). Samples were analyzed using a pairedt-test. Standard error was used when n>3 and standard deviation usedwhen n=3

The compositions and/or of the subject invention can be formulatedaccording to known methods for preparing pharmaceutically usefulcompositions. Furthermore, as used herein, the phrase “pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier” means any of the standard pharmaceuticallyacceptable carriers. The pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can includediluents, adjuvants, and vehicles, as well as implant carriers, andinert, non-toxic solid or liquid fillers, diluents, or encapsulatingmaterial that does not react with the active ingredients of theinvention. Examples include, but are not limited to, phosphate bufferedsaline, physiological saline, water, and emulsions, such as oil/wateremulsions. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersing medium containing,for example, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol,liquid polyethylene glycol, and the like), suitable mixtures thereof,and vegetable oils. Formulations are described in a number of sourcesthat are well known and readily available to those skilled in the art.For example, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Martin E W [1995]Easton Pennsylvania, Mack Publishing Company, 19^(th) ed.) describesformulations which can be used in connection with the subject invention.

Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include, forexample, aqueous sterile injection solutions, which may containantioxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes which render theformulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient; andaqueous and nonaqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspendingagents and thickening agents. The formulations may be presented inunit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example sealed ampoules andvials, and may be stored in a freeze dried (lyophilized) conditionrequiring only the condition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example,water for injections, prior to use.

Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared fromsterile powder, granules, tablets, etc. It should be understood that inaddition to the ingredients particularly mentioned above, theformulations of the subject invention can include other agentsconventional in the art having regard to the type of formulation inquestion. The pharmaceutical composition can be adapted for variousforms of administration. Administration can be continuous or at distinctintervals as can be determined by a person skilled in the art.

The administration of the compound comprising insulin, ascorbate, or anycombination thereof is administered and dosed in accordance with goodmedical practice, taking into account the clinical condition of theindividual patient, the site and method of administration, scheduling ofadministration, patient age, sex, body weight, and other factors knownto medical practitioners.

The pharmaceutically or therapeutically “effective amount” for purposesherein is thus determined by such considerations as are known in theart.

A therapeutically effective amount of the compound comprising insulin,ascorbate, or any combination thereof is that amount necessary toprovide a therapeutically effective result in vivo. The amount of thecompound comprising insulin, ascorbate, or any combination thereof mustbe effective to achieve a response, including but not limited toincreased collagen synthesis within the cell layer, increased collagensynthesis pericellularly, increased resistance of the synthesizedcollagen to degradation by pepsin, increased synthesis and/or secretionof lumican and/or keratocan or other indicators as are selected asappropriate measures by those skilled in the art. In accordance with thepresent invention, a suitable single dose size is a dose that is capableof preventing or alleviating (reducing or eliminating) a symptom orcondition in a patient when administered one or more times over asuitable time period. One of skill in the art can readily determineappropriate single dose sizes for systemic administration based on thesize of a mammal and the route of administration.

It will be seen that the advantages set forth above, and those madeapparent from the foregoing description, are efficiently attained andsince certain changes may be made in the above construction withoutdeparting from the scope of the invention, it is intended that allmatters contained in the foregoing description or shown in theaccompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in alimiting sense.

It is also to be understood that the following claims are intended tocover all of the generic and specific features of the invention hereindescribed, and all statements of the scope of the invention which, as amatter of language, might be said to fall therebetween. Now that theinvention has been described,

1. A method of increasing collagen synthesis, comprising contacting thewound with a therapeutically effective amount of a compound comprisinginsulin and ascorbate wherein the compound further comprises2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid.